Rock n' roll
Rock and roll (also known as rock 'n' roll), is a genre of music that evolved in the United States in the late 1940s and became popular in the early 1950s, quickly spreading to the rest of the world. It later spawned the various sub-genres of what is now called simply 'rock'.
The musical basis of rock and roll is its beat, usually accompanied by lyrics. The beat is basically a boogie woogie blues rhythm with an accentuated backbeat, the latter almost always provided by a snare drum. Classic rock and roll is played with one electric guitar or two electric guitars (one lead, one rhythm), an electric bass guitar, and a drum kit. Keyboards are a common addition to the mix. In the rock and roll style of the early 1950s, the saxophone was often the lead instrument, replaced by guitar in the mid 1950s. In the earliest form of rock and roll, during the late 1940s, the piano was the lead instrument, and indeed, among the roots of rock and roll is the boogie woogie piano of the big band era that dominated American music in the 1940s.
The massive popularity and eventual worldwide scope of rock and roll gave it an unprecedented social impact. Far beyond simply a musical style, rock and roll influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes, and language. Many of its early stars, notably Elvis Presley, built movie and/or television careers around their music.
The term "rock and roll", which was black slang for sexual intercourse, appeared on record for the first time in 1922 on Trixie Smith's "My Baby Rocks Me With One Steady Roll".
John Lennon summed it up and stated: "If you tried to give rock and roll another name, you might call it 'Chuck Berry'.
Wednesday, March 14, 2007
Tuesday, March 13, 2007
Angels and Airwaves
Angels and Airwaves (AVA) is a band that was formed by former blink-182 and Box Car Racer guitarist/vocalist Tom DeLonge after he left blink-182. The band includes the Over My Dead Body, Hazen Street and Box Car Racer guitarist David Kennedy, ex-Distillers bassist Ryan Sinn and current Offspring drummer Atom Willard. AVA released their first single, "The Adventure", on May 18, 2006 and their debut album, We Don't Need to Whisper, on May 23, 2006.
History
Formation
According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, DeLonge trademarked the name "Angels & Airwaves (AVA)" on June 24, 2005 amidst the lingering confusion of blink-182's abruptly announced "indefinite hiatus". DeLonge quickly recruited friends and fellow musicians David Kennedy, Ryan Sinn and Atom Willard to round out the band's roster. Some of the beginnings to the songs on their album were originally going to be Blink-182 songs. Tom took blink-182's beginnings and turned them into songs on the album.
In an interview with British magazine Kerrang!, DeLonge commented about the band's beginning:
Debut
Originally, "Valkyrie Missile" was slated for release via iTunes on December 13, 2005, DeLonge's 30th birthday. However, due to discussions with their record label, Geffen, the band decided to push the release date back to a later date. Instead, the Angels and Airwaves website produced the first ever glimpse at the movie currently in production, a 1-and-a-half minute long trailer featuring portions of the delayed song.
Angels & Airwaves released both a music video and a short film for their first single, "The Adventure"; the band also released a short film for "It Hurts" via the band's official website. Both are short sci-fi films and together form the first part of a proposed ten-part series, following the cast's struggle through an unfamiliar world. On October 3, 2006, the band released the third installment in the series, "The Gift".
"Do It for Me Now" was released as the second single in the US, while in the UK "It Hurts" was released as the second single. The music video for "It Hurts" is the short-film released on April 18th and was available to select on the UK music television channel Kerrang!.
Before the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards, DeLonge revealed news about the current events of the band. "The War" would be the next single to be released and the short film was released October 27th, 2006.
In 2006, the band embarked on their first full-length tour, which was headlined by Taking Back Sunday and supported by Head Automatica and The Subways. Numerous one-stop dates at the Give It a Name 2006 festival were played. The band also played on The Late Show with David Letterman on May 15, 2006.
They also performed at two shows at London's Hyde Park and at the Old Trafford Cricket Ground in Manchester supporting the Foo Fighters on their successful In Your Honor tour.
Future plans
Among the plans for a big future, AVA have announced they are planning on releasing a film involving their music tentatively titled AvA. The World War II-based movie is being created primarily through the use of CGI. This "story" is apparently based upon DeLonge's life and will give viewers insight into the hiatus of blink-182. Currently, the only known cast member is Michael Ostman. The band is writing the script for the new movie and filming for this is currently underway [1].
Furthermore, in September, on a MySpace bulletin, DeLonge revealed a new song, which is 8 and a half minutes long and contains 3 movements called "Star of Bethlehem". However, the song is only known to be one full song and not three movements as previously stated by DeLonge. The song did debut at a concert in Brisbane, Australia on October 19, 2006. The full song can now be heard on the band's MySpace, and an edited four minute version is included on the KROQ 2006 Christmas CD.
Recently, MTV asked Tom about the future of the band. DeLonge stated that the next part of his three-to-five year process would be revealed sometime this year. "It's bigger than just the band itself. It's a mixture of my businesses and the band, and when people laugh and say, 'Oh, yeah, what a big revelation that was!' ... they have no idea. I have access to developing this record far beyond what people can understand," [2]
They are now working on their second album, due late 2007.
Resting Bird is working on a new video that will introduce all of AVA's fans to the new album.
History
Formation
According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, DeLonge trademarked the name "Angels & Airwaves (AVA)" on June 24, 2005 amidst the lingering confusion of blink-182's abruptly announced "indefinite hiatus". DeLonge quickly recruited friends and fellow musicians David Kennedy, Ryan Sinn and Atom Willard to round out the band's roster. Some of the beginnings to the songs on their album were originally going to be Blink-182 songs. Tom took blink-182's beginnings and turned them into songs on the album.
In an interview with British magazine Kerrang!, DeLonge commented about the band's beginning:
Debut
Originally, "Valkyrie Missile" was slated for release via iTunes on December 13, 2005, DeLonge's 30th birthday. However, due to discussions with their record label, Geffen, the band decided to push the release date back to a later date. Instead, the Angels and Airwaves website produced the first ever glimpse at the movie currently in production, a 1-and-a-half minute long trailer featuring portions of the delayed song.
Angels & Airwaves released both a music video and a short film for their first single, "The Adventure"; the band also released a short film for "It Hurts" via the band's official website. Both are short sci-fi films and together form the first part of a proposed ten-part series, following the cast's struggle through an unfamiliar world. On October 3, 2006, the band released the third installment in the series, "The Gift".
"Do It for Me Now" was released as the second single in the US, while in the UK "It Hurts" was released as the second single. The music video for "It Hurts" is the short-film released on April 18th and was available to select on the UK music television channel Kerrang!.
Before the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards, DeLonge revealed news about the current events of the band. "The War" would be the next single to be released and the short film was released October 27th, 2006.
In 2006, the band embarked on their first full-length tour, which was headlined by Taking Back Sunday and supported by Head Automatica and The Subways. Numerous one-stop dates at the Give It a Name 2006 festival were played. The band also played on The Late Show with David Letterman on May 15, 2006.
They also performed at two shows at London's Hyde Park and at the Old Trafford Cricket Ground in Manchester supporting the Foo Fighters on their successful In Your Honor tour.
Future plans
Among the plans for a big future, AVA have announced they are planning on releasing a film involving their music tentatively titled AvA. The World War II-based movie is being created primarily through the use of CGI. This "story" is apparently based upon DeLonge's life and will give viewers insight into the hiatus of blink-182. Currently, the only known cast member is Michael Ostman. The band is writing the script for the new movie and filming for this is currently underway [1].
Furthermore, in September, on a MySpace bulletin, DeLonge revealed a new song, which is 8 and a half minutes long and contains 3 movements called "Star of Bethlehem". However, the song is only known to be one full song and not three movements as previously stated by DeLonge. The song did debut at a concert in Brisbane, Australia on October 19, 2006. The full song can now be heard on the band's MySpace, and an edited four minute version is included on the KROQ 2006 Christmas CD.
Recently, MTV asked Tom about the future of the band. DeLonge stated that the next part of his three-to-five year process would be revealed sometime this year. "It's bigger than just the band itself. It's a mixture of my businesses and the band, and when people laugh and say, 'Oh, yeah, what a big revelation that was!' ... they have no idea. I have access to developing this record far beyond what people can understand," [2]
They are now working on their second album, due late 2007.
Resting Bird is working on a new video that will introduce all of AVA's fans to the new album.
+44
+44 (pronounced "Plus Forty Four", also known as (+44) or Plus-44) is a band formed by former blink-182 members Mark Hoppus (bass guitar and vocals) and Travis Barker (drums and keyboards). +44 is a punk rock super group that consists of former Transplants touring guitarist Craig Fairbaugh and the lead guitarist of The Nervous Return, Shane Gallagher. The band's debut album, When Your Heart Stops Beating, was released on November 14, 2006 in the United States.[2] According to Hoppus, the band's name, +44, refers to the international dialing code of the United Kingdom, the country where Hoppus and Barker first discussed the project.
History
Formation
After the blink-182 "indefinite hiatus" in February 2005, former members, Hoppus and Barker wanted to continue working on music; the duo began to colloborate which resulted in the writing and recording new songs together in Barker's basement. Originally, electronic drums, keyboards, samples and direct computer recordings were used in the majority of recordings. Barker later stated that the whole electronic element of the band was derived from "155", the first song he and Hoppus wrote as a band.[4]
As work continued on the demos, punk rock vocalist Carol Heller was invited, by Hoppus and Barker, to try out her vocals. Heller's performance was agreeable enough to the band and as a result the three kept working on more songs together. The band's formation changed again early in the year of 2006, with the addition of guitarist Shane Gallagher. In order to progress with their demos, Barker and Hoppus acquired a studio, a move which marked a "turning point for +44." The band began working solely in the studio they had purchased, playing live drums, guitars and vocals. The band's sound had started with an electronic element which became less evident, but still remained a key feature. As a result, Heller found she wasn't compatible with the band's direction, and with the addition of her wish to start a family, she left the band. The vocal work that Heller contributed is still present in the songs "Make You Smile", "Weatherman" and the "No, It Isn't" demo.
Work continued on the band's first record, with members, Hoppus, Barker and Shane Gallagher, until three quarters of the recording had been done. At this point a new member joined, Craig Fairbaugh, who was to play second guitar and backup vocals.
When Your Heart Stops Beating
As the projected release date started to draw in, speculation on the title of the band's debut album began to circulate. At first, it was believed that the album would be called "Little Death". This was later found out to be untrue, and the title was revealed as When Your Heart Stops Beating. A song, entitled "Lycanthrope" was released on the +44 website in early September 2006. This was only the second song that fans had heard other than "No, It Isn't" and had more of a "punk" feel to it.
Later in September 2006, KROQ radio played the title track of the forthcoming album after a message from Mark Hoppus through his MySpace blog, alerting fans to this fact. The band played their first gig on the September 7, 2006 at the Roxy Theatre in Hollywood; Hoppus stated it was the first show he had performed in two years. The audience received free shirts that say "THE FIRST SHOW SEPTEMBER 7, 2006 LOS ANGELES, CA THE ROXY THEATRE" or "BORN IN LONDON AND RAISED IN LOS ANGELES" (referring to the band being created during a conversation between Hoppus and Barker in London and the band writing/recording their record in Los Angeles). The band followed this up by their second ever gig and first ever UK gig in London at the Astoria. Both gigs were met with very encouraging reactions from fans, considering that at that time, only one completely recorded and mastered song, "When Your Heart Stops Beating" had been heard.
A music video for "When Your Heart Stops Beating" was shot in a factory in LA shortly after their first gig. Fans were invited along to feature in the video also. The video debuted in the US on TRL in late September 2006. During the shooting of the video, Travis Barker injured his arm, which was discovered weeks later after playing a whole European promo tour. Fans can hear parts of this through Mark's Podcast Morning Zoo. This left the band with no option but to postpone part of its US tour, originally scheduled for October 2006, to December of the same year.
The release date for the album was confirmed to be November 14, 2006 for North America, November 13, 2006 for Europe, and November 11, 2006 for Australia. The band will be releasing two singles to support the album release. "When Your Heart Stops Beating" will be released in the US whereas in the UK, "Lycanthrope" will be released as a 7" vinyl on November 8, 2006. On November 13, 2006, a day before the release, during the show at the 9:30 Club, the album was sold early, with a free pink "Cliffdiving" 7".
Upon ordering a t-shirt from +44, fans were randomly chosen to receive a limited edition CD that contains the demo of the song "No, It Isn't". The packaging states that there are only 500 of these discs.
A brand new electronic remix of "When Your Heart Stops Beating" was added to the band's official website, as well as their MySpace on October 23, 2006. The song "Lycanthrope" is on the soundtrack of the video game Tony Hawk's Project 8, in which Travis Barker is an unlockable character.
Regarding the lyrical content of the album, Hoppus stated that "the +44 album is by far the most lyrically personal music I have ever written. The words are everything I have inside me put on a CD. This is the most personal album any of us have ever written. You want to know who we are, what we think, or how we feel? Listen to the +44 CD."[5] The album refers to the break-up of blink-182, and "the ugly feelings that were left over afterwards,"[2] according to Hoppus. The song "No It Isn't", released on Tom Delonge's birthday, December 13, is primarily directed towards DeLonge's departure from blink-182.[6]
The band appeared on The Late Show with David Letterman on November 15, 2006, playing "When Your Heart Stops Beating", as well as Jimmy Kimmel Live on December 19, 2006.
The band then appeared on UK TV music show "The Rock Hour" describing the reasons of forming +44.
+44 did a cover of the Descendents' song, "Christmas Vacation" for KROQ's Kevin & Bean's Christmas album, and on tour in Minneapolis, Minnesota, at First Avenue. Later they did a cover of Berlin's song, The Metro, for their second European Tour.
+44's When Your Heart Stops Beating was ranked number 2 in Maxim's top 10 music for 2006.
The second UK single is "When Your Heart Stops Beating" to coincide with their current tour in Europe. It will be released on February 12, 2007. It will be released on 7" vinyl containing the title track and a electronic mix of the title track. The CD version will contain the title track and "Baby Come On". The single's music video premiered on Kerrang TV on the January 11, 2007. The video is also available to select from the Kerrang Playlist. It can be seen on Scuzz, MTV 2 and The Box as well.
The third single in the UK will be "Chapter 13". Yahoo! released the video for the song which was directed by American video director Jason B. Bergh.
The second single in the USA is supposed to be "Baby Come On" according to Mark Hoppus' blog, http://himynameismark.com/.
Due to his arm injury, Travis Barker pulled out of going on tour with +44 in Europe and Australia, but he will return to perform with +44 in the summer of 2007 with Fall Out Boy, The Academy Is..., Paul Wall, and Cobra Starship on the 2007 Honda Civic Tour (currently, Gil Sharone is filling in for him.) It is rumored that +44 will appear at a variety show in New Orleans called "The Joseph Burwell Show featuring Steve Harris" sometime in 2007.
History
Formation
After the blink-182 "indefinite hiatus" in February 2005, former members, Hoppus and Barker wanted to continue working on music; the duo began to colloborate which resulted in the writing and recording new songs together in Barker's basement. Originally, electronic drums, keyboards, samples and direct computer recordings were used in the majority of recordings. Barker later stated that the whole electronic element of the band was derived from "155", the first song he and Hoppus wrote as a band.[4]
As work continued on the demos, punk rock vocalist Carol Heller was invited, by Hoppus and Barker, to try out her vocals. Heller's performance was agreeable enough to the band and as a result the three kept working on more songs together. The band's formation changed again early in the year of 2006, with the addition of guitarist Shane Gallagher. In order to progress with their demos, Barker and Hoppus acquired a studio, a move which marked a "turning point for +44." The band began working solely in the studio they had purchased, playing live drums, guitars and vocals. The band's sound had started with an electronic element which became less evident, but still remained a key feature. As a result, Heller found she wasn't compatible with the band's direction, and with the addition of her wish to start a family, she left the band. The vocal work that Heller contributed is still present in the songs "Make You Smile", "Weatherman" and the "No, It Isn't" demo.
Work continued on the band's first record, with members, Hoppus, Barker and Shane Gallagher, until three quarters of the recording had been done. At this point a new member joined, Craig Fairbaugh, who was to play second guitar and backup vocals.
When Your Heart Stops Beating
As the projected release date started to draw in, speculation on the title of the band's debut album began to circulate. At first, it was believed that the album would be called "Little Death". This was later found out to be untrue, and the title was revealed as When Your Heart Stops Beating. A song, entitled "Lycanthrope" was released on the +44 website in early September 2006. This was only the second song that fans had heard other than "No, It Isn't" and had more of a "punk" feel to it.
Later in September 2006, KROQ radio played the title track of the forthcoming album after a message from Mark Hoppus through his MySpace blog, alerting fans to this fact. The band played their first gig on the September 7, 2006 at the Roxy Theatre in Hollywood; Hoppus stated it was the first show he had performed in two years. The audience received free shirts that say "THE FIRST SHOW SEPTEMBER 7, 2006 LOS ANGELES, CA THE ROXY THEATRE" or "BORN IN LONDON AND RAISED IN LOS ANGELES" (referring to the band being created during a conversation between Hoppus and Barker in London and the band writing/recording their record in Los Angeles). The band followed this up by their second ever gig and first ever UK gig in London at the Astoria. Both gigs were met with very encouraging reactions from fans, considering that at that time, only one completely recorded and mastered song, "When Your Heart Stops Beating" had been heard.
A music video for "When Your Heart Stops Beating" was shot in a factory in LA shortly after their first gig. Fans were invited along to feature in the video also. The video debuted in the US on TRL in late September 2006. During the shooting of the video, Travis Barker injured his arm, which was discovered weeks later after playing a whole European promo tour. Fans can hear parts of this through Mark's Podcast Morning Zoo. This left the band with no option but to postpone part of its US tour, originally scheduled for October 2006, to December of the same year.
The release date for the album was confirmed to be November 14, 2006 for North America, November 13, 2006 for Europe, and November 11, 2006 for Australia. The band will be releasing two singles to support the album release. "When Your Heart Stops Beating" will be released in the US whereas in the UK, "Lycanthrope" will be released as a 7" vinyl on November 8, 2006. On November 13, 2006, a day before the release, during the show at the 9:30 Club, the album was sold early, with a free pink "Cliffdiving" 7".
Upon ordering a t-shirt from +44, fans were randomly chosen to receive a limited edition CD that contains the demo of the song "No, It Isn't". The packaging states that there are only 500 of these discs.
A brand new electronic remix of "When Your Heart Stops Beating" was added to the band's official website, as well as their MySpace on October 23, 2006. The song "Lycanthrope" is on the soundtrack of the video game Tony Hawk's Project 8, in which Travis Barker is an unlockable character.
Regarding the lyrical content of the album, Hoppus stated that "the +44 album is by far the most lyrically personal music I have ever written. The words are everything I have inside me put on a CD. This is the most personal album any of us have ever written. You want to know who we are, what we think, or how we feel? Listen to the +44 CD."[5] The album refers to the break-up of blink-182, and "the ugly feelings that were left over afterwards,"[2] according to Hoppus. The song "No It Isn't", released on Tom Delonge's birthday, December 13, is primarily directed towards DeLonge's departure from blink-182.[6]
The band appeared on The Late Show with David Letterman on November 15, 2006, playing "When Your Heart Stops Beating", as well as Jimmy Kimmel Live on December 19, 2006.
The band then appeared on UK TV music show "The Rock Hour" describing the reasons of forming +44.
+44 did a cover of the Descendents' song, "Christmas Vacation" for KROQ's Kevin & Bean's Christmas album, and on tour in Minneapolis, Minnesota, at First Avenue. Later they did a cover of Berlin's song, The Metro, for their second European Tour.
+44's When Your Heart Stops Beating was ranked number 2 in Maxim's top 10 music for 2006.
The second UK single is "When Your Heart Stops Beating" to coincide with their current tour in Europe. It will be released on February 12, 2007. It will be released on 7" vinyl containing the title track and a electronic mix of the title track. The CD version will contain the title track and "Baby Come On". The single's music video premiered on Kerrang TV on the January 11, 2007. The video is also available to select from the Kerrang Playlist. It can be seen on Scuzz, MTV 2 and The Box as well.
The third single in the UK will be "Chapter 13". Yahoo! released the video for the song which was directed by American video director Jason B. Bergh.
The second single in the USA is supposed to be "Baby Come On" according to Mark Hoppus' blog, http://himynameismark.com/.
Due to his arm injury, Travis Barker pulled out of going on tour with +44 in Europe and Australia, but he will return to perform with +44 in the summer of 2007 with Fall Out Boy, The Academy Is..., Paul Wall, and Cobra Starship on the 2007 Honda Civic Tour (currently, Gil Sharone is filling in for him.) It is rumored that +44 will appear at a variety show in New Orleans called "The Joseph Burwell Show featuring Steve Harris" sometime in 2007.
Vodka
Vodka is one of the world's most consumed distilled beverages. It is typically a colorless liquid containing ethanol purified by distillation from a fermented substance such as grain. The word is the diminutive of "water" in various Slavic languages (voda, woda, вода).
Except for various types of flavorings, vodka consists of water and alcohol (ethanol). It does not contain any calories from fat, which is probably the reason behind its popularity. It usually has an alcohol content ranging from 35% to 50% by volume. The classic Russian vodka is 40% (80 proof). This can be attributed to the Russian standards for vodka production introduced in 1894 by Alexander III from research undertaken by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. According to the Vodka Museum in Moscow, Mendeleev found the perfect percentage to be 38, but since spirits in his time were taxed on their strength, the percentage was rounded up to 40 to simplify the tax computation. At strengths less than this vodka drunk neat (not mixed with other liquids) can taste 'watery' and above this strength the taste of vodka can have more 'burn'. Some governments set a minimum alcohol content for a spirit to be called "vodka"; for example, the European Union sets a minimum of 37.5% alcohol by volume. [1] Although vodka is generally drunk neat in its Eastern European and Scandinavian homeland, its growth in popularity elsewhere owes much to its usefulness in cocktails and other mixed drinks, such as the Bloody Mary, the Screwdriver, the Vodka Tonic, and the Vodka Martini.
Etymology
The origins of vodka (and of its name) cannot be traced definitively, but it is believed to have originated in the grain-growing region that now embraces Poland, Belarus, Lithuania, Ukraine, and western Russia. It also has a long tradition in Scandinavia.
The word can be found in the Primary Chronicle of Novgorod dating to 1533, where the term vodka is used in the context of herbal alcoholic tinctures. A number of pharmaceutical lists contain the terms "vodka of bread wine" (водка хлебного вина) and "vodka in half of bread wine" (водка полу хлебного вина). As alcohol had long been used as a basis for medicines, this implies that the term vodka is a noun derived from the verb vodit’, razvodit’ (водить, разводить), "to dilute with water". Bread wine was a spirit distilled from alcohol made from grain (as opposed to grape wine) and hence "vodka of bread wine" would be a water dilution of a distilled grain spirit.
While the word could be found in manuscripts and in lubok (лубок, pictures with text explaining the plot, a Russian predecessor of the comic), it began to appear in Russian dictionaries in the mid-19th century.
Interestingly, peoples in the area of vodka's probable origin have names for vodka with roots meaning "to burn": Polish: gorzałka; Ukrainian: горілка, horilka; Belarusian: гарэлка, harelka; Lithuanian: degtinė; Latvian: degvīns; Finnish: paloviina; Danish; brændevin; Swedish: brännvin; Norwegian: Brennevin (although the Swedish and Norwegian terms refer to any strong alcoholic beverage); in Russian during 17th and 18th century горящее вино (goryashchee vino, "burning wine") was widely used.
History
For many centuries beverages contained little alcohol. It is estimated that the maximum amount was about 16% as only this amount is reachable by means of natural fermentation. The still allowing for distillation – “the burning of wine” – was invented in the 8th century.
The process of distillation was kept secret for a long time. The first description of a distilling apparatus comes from the 13th century. The device was later described by a university professor in his treatise about wine. To produce beverages containing 60% alcohol with the device, the distillation process had to be repeated several times. The general knowledge about distillation was being slowly developed until 1800, when Edward Adam invented the process of rectification which removed its “bad taste”. Further changes were made in 1817 by Johannes Pistorius, a German brewer, who built the first machine which could produce a beverage containing 85% of alcohol in just one distillation. In 1830 in Ireland designed an apparatus that could work continuously and allowed for production of beverage containing almost 90% of alcohol. A similar rectification machine, but working periodically, was for the first time used in 1852 in a brewery in Saint Denis by Pierre Savalle. The present-day distillation-rectification machines, designed in the 19th and 20th centuries, are essentially modernized versions of those devices. Currently, such machines can work continuously and produce beverages containing 95.6% alcohol without any taste or smell.
The process of distillation with still was widely promoted throughout Europe by Dutch traders. In the 17th century they also played a great role in exchanging the various types of alcohols such as mead, wine, beer, and also the stronger ones such as rum, cognac, whisky and vodka, between the countries of their origin.
Except for various types of flavorings, vodka consists of water and alcohol (ethanol). It does not contain any calories from fat, which is probably the reason behind its popularity. It usually has an alcohol content ranging from 35% to 50% by volume. The classic Russian vodka is 40% (80 proof). This can be attributed to the Russian standards for vodka production introduced in 1894 by Alexander III from research undertaken by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. According to the Vodka Museum in Moscow, Mendeleev found the perfect percentage to be 38, but since spirits in his time were taxed on their strength, the percentage was rounded up to 40 to simplify the tax computation. At strengths less than this vodka drunk neat (not mixed with other liquids) can taste 'watery' and above this strength the taste of vodka can have more 'burn'. Some governments set a minimum alcohol content for a spirit to be called "vodka"; for example, the European Union sets a minimum of 37.5% alcohol by volume. [1] Although vodka is generally drunk neat in its Eastern European and Scandinavian homeland, its growth in popularity elsewhere owes much to its usefulness in cocktails and other mixed drinks, such as the Bloody Mary, the Screwdriver, the Vodka Tonic, and the Vodka Martini.
Etymology
The origins of vodka (and of its name) cannot be traced definitively, but it is believed to have originated in the grain-growing region that now embraces Poland, Belarus, Lithuania, Ukraine, and western Russia. It also has a long tradition in Scandinavia.
The word can be found in the Primary Chronicle of Novgorod dating to 1533, where the term vodka is used in the context of herbal alcoholic tinctures. A number of pharmaceutical lists contain the terms "vodka of bread wine" (водка хлебного вина) and "vodka in half of bread wine" (водка полу хлебного вина). As alcohol had long been used as a basis for medicines, this implies that the term vodka is a noun derived from the verb vodit’, razvodit’ (водить, разводить), "to dilute with water". Bread wine was a spirit distilled from alcohol made from grain (as opposed to grape wine) and hence "vodka of bread wine" would be a water dilution of a distilled grain spirit.
While the word could be found in manuscripts and in lubok (лубок, pictures with text explaining the plot, a Russian predecessor of the comic), it began to appear in Russian dictionaries in the mid-19th century.
Interestingly, peoples in the area of vodka's probable origin have names for vodka with roots meaning "to burn": Polish: gorzałka; Ukrainian: горілка, horilka; Belarusian: гарэлка, harelka; Lithuanian: degtinė; Latvian: degvīns; Finnish: paloviina; Danish; brændevin; Swedish: brännvin; Norwegian: Brennevin (although the Swedish and Norwegian terms refer to any strong alcoholic beverage); in Russian during 17th and 18th century горящее вино (goryashchee vino, "burning wine") was widely used.
History
For many centuries beverages contained little alcohol. It is estimated that the maximum amount was about 16% as only this amount is reachable by means of natural fermentation. The still allowing for distillation – “the burning of wine” – was invented in the 8th century.
The process of distillation was kept secret for a long time. The first description of a distilling apparatus comes from the 13th century. The device was later described by a university professor in his treatise about wine. To produce beverages containing 60% alcohol with the device, the distillation process had to be repeated several times. The general knowledge about distillation was being slowly developed until 1800, when Edward Adam invented the process of rectification which removed its “bad taste”. Further changes were made in 1817 by Johannes Pistorius, a German brewer, who built the first machine which could produce a beverage containing 85% of alcohol in just one distillation. In 1830 in Ireland designed an apparatus that could work continuously and allowed for production of beverage containing almost 90% of alcohol. A similar rectification machine, but working periodically, was for the first time used in 1852 in a brewery in Saint Denis by Pierre Savalle. The present-day distillation-rectification machines, designed in the 19th and 20th centuries, are essentially modernized versions of those devices. Currently, such machines can work continuously and produce beverages containing 95.6% alcohol without any taste or smell.
The process of distillation with still was widely promoted throughout Europe by Dutch traders. In the 17th century they also played a great role in exchanging the various types of alcohols such as mead, wine, beer, and also the stronger ones such as rum, cognac, whisky and vodka, between the countries of their origin.
History of Indonesia
Indonesia is a country encompassing an archipelago of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited) stretching along the Equator. The area is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. These diverse peoples were influenced in varying degrees by trade and contact with the civilizations of the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia, before the Portuguese initiated a direct relation between Indonesia and Europe, and colonists from the Netherlands finally consolidated most of the archipelago into a single administrative unit, under the Dutch East India Company.
The outbreak of World War II saw Indonesia put in the middle of warfare between the Dutch and Imperial Japan. The defeat of the Dutch saw them driven out and replaced with Japanese occupation forces, but the weakening of these two world powers provided an opening for Indonesian Nationalists, led by Sukarno, and other independence movements to launch an armed conflict. After a brief time, during which the Dutch sought to re-colonize the country, the Indonesian Nationalists won recognition for the newly formed Republic of Indonesia. In doing so, it was among the first Third World nations to gain its independence after World War II.
Since gaining independence, the Republic of Indonesia has largely been ruled by a strong central government in Jakarta. After Indonesia's founding President Sukarno was weakened by prolonged warfare against Malaysia and its Commonwealth allies in the Konfrontasi, and by internal conflict between the Indonesian Army and the Communist Party of Indonesia, general Suharto took power in 1966. The period of his rule, known as the era of the New Order, would last 32 years and would make Indonesia a rapidly industrializing nation, though not without the problems of extensive corruption and popular discontent. After a wave of protests demanding democracy, Suharto stepped down, beginning the present period of Indonesian history, known as the Reformation era.
Prehistory
Geologically the area of modern Indonesia appeared sometime around the Pleistocene period when it was still linked with the Asian mainland. The archipelago formed during the thaw after the latest ice age. The area's first known humanlike inhabitant some 500,000 years ago was "Java Man" (first classified as Pithecanthropus erectus, then subsequently named a part of the species Homo erectus). Recent discoveries on the island of Flores were dubbed "Flores Man" (Homo floresiensis), a miniature hominoid that grew only three feet tall, although whether this is a separate species is in dispute. Nevertheless, Flores Man seems to have shared some islands with Java Man until only 10,000 years ago, when they became extinct.
Early history
Indian scholars wrote about the Dvipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC.
The earliest archeological record from the present era is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu archeological relic of a Ganesha statue from the 1st century AD was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan Island.
There is also archeological evidence of a kingdom in Tatar Sunda / Sunda Territory (West Java) dating from the 2nd century, and according to Dr Tony Djubiantono, the head of Bandung Archeology Agency, Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, Java was also built around this time.
Three rough plinths dating from the beginning of the fourth century are found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading "A gift to the Brahmin priests". In addition, the "Batu Tulis" monument (a huge black boulder) near Bogor, West Java, dates from around 450. On this monument, King Purnawarna inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnawarna, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years.
The outbreak of World War II saw Indonesia put in the middle of warfare between the Dutch and Imperial Japan. The defeat of the Dutch saw them driven out and replaced with Japanese occupation forces, but the weakening of these two world powers provided an opening for Indonesian Nationalists, led by Sukarno, and other independence movements to launch an armed conflict. After a brief time, during which the Dutch sought to re-colonize the country, the Indonesian Nationalists won recognition for the newly formed Republic of Indonesia. In doing so, it was among the first Third World nations to gain its independence after World War II.
Since gaining independence, the Republic of Indonesia has largely been ruled by a strong central government in Jakarta. After Indonesia's founding President Sukarno was weakened by prolonged warfare against Malaysia and its Commonwealth allies in the Konfrontasi, and by internal conflict between the Indonesian Army and the Communist Party of Indonesia, general Suharto took power in 1966. The period of his rule, known as the era of the New Order, would last 32 years and would make Indonesia a rapidly industrializing nation, though not without the problems of extensive corruption and popular discontent. After a wave of protests demanding democracy, Suharto stepped down, beginning the present period of Indonesian history, known as the Reformation era.
Prehistory
Geologically the area of modern Indonesia appeared sometime around the Pleistocene period when it was still linked with the Asian mainland. The archipelago formed during the thaw after the latest ice age. The area's first known humanlike inhabitant some 500,000 years ago was "Java Man" (first classified as Pithecanthropus erectus, then subsequently named a part of the species Homo erectus). Recent discoveries on the island of Flores were dubbed "Flores Man" (Homo floresiensis), a miniature hominoid that grew only three feet tall, although whether this is a separate species is in dispute. Nevertheless, Flores Man seems to have shared some islands with Java Man until only 10,000 years ago, when they became extinct.
Early history
Indian scholars wrote about the Dvipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC.
The earliest archeological record from the present era is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu archeological relic of a Ganesha statue from the 1st century AD was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan Island.
There is also archeological evidence of a kingdom in Tatar Sunda / Sunda Territory (West Java) dating from the 2nd century, and according to Dr Tony Djubiantono, the head of Bandung Archeology Agency, Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, Java was also built around this time.
Three rough plinths dating from the beginning of the fourth century are found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading "A gift to the Brahmin priests". In addition, the "Batu Tulis" monument (a huge black boulder) near Bogor, West Java, dates from around 450. On this monument, King Purnawarna inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnawarna, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years.
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